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  This study examines the shadow economy as a macroeconomic and institutional phenomenon that varies across countries. The main objective is to explain these differences by analyzing factors such as tax burden, institutional quality, regulatory environment, and labor market conditions. The study highlights the lack of a unified definition, with the ... This study examines the shadow economy as a macroeconomic and institutional phenomenon that varies across countries. The main objective is to explain these differences by analyzing factors such as tax burden, institutional quality, regulatory environment, and labor market conditions. The study highlights the lack of a unified definition, with the shadow economy most commonly understood as legal activities deliberately concealed from public authorities. The analysis shows that it leads to an underestimation of real GDP and is measured through direct, indirect, and mixed methods. It is found that its share is lower in developed countries, while in less developed economies it often plays a compensatory role. In conclusion, the size of the shadow economy is determined by the interaction between economic incentives and institutional factors.

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  Digitalization in customs: economic and institutional impacts

  Customs administrations are experiencing a significant transformation propelled by the swift growth of international trade and the rising complexity of global supply chains. Digitalization has become a crucial element in this evolution, enhancing efficiency, transparency, and risk management within customs operations. This paper examines the ... Customs administrations are experiencing a significant transformation propelled by the swift growth of international trade and the rising complexity of global supply chains. Digitalization has become a crucial element in this evolution, enhancing efficiency, transparency, and risk management within customs operations. This paper examines the economic and institutional ramifications of digitalization in contemporary customs administration through qualitative document analysis of institutional reports and scholarly literature. The results demonstrate that electronic customs systems can lead to a reduction in clearance times by 30�70% and a decrease in global trade costs by roughly 14.3%. The application of advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence, blockchain, and the Internet of Things further boosts operational efficiency, risk-based management, and visibility within the supply chain. However, the study also indicates that the advantages of digitalization are distributed unevenly, attributed to gaps in infrastructure, differences in regulatory frameworks, and the global digital divide. This emphasizes the importance of coordinated international policies and institutional collaboration.

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